HomeMy WebLinkAboutDiesel and Health in America2
- ~ ~~-~ - -
-~ ~ ~~~......~~---=-~ - --- =--=- ~-=-~~~ ~.:
- ,- ~- -
.. ~
"-
r L~ ~oI!~ f1,. t ~~ ~yt.tJ ~ /...U~~ .~... _ ~
Dl~!:.-e~ 5C.N H~,"i Hh L"r,;:-.ii!ct;
~~tt-~:.r"t1. 'i'~~/f~ _-I'" ,I;""t l....~ """ ;i"
Find out about the risks
of breathing diesel exhaust
where you live:
www.catf.us/goto/dieselhealth
!CLEAN AIRTASKF()RCE I
18 Tremont Street, Suite 530, Boston, MA 02108
Tel: 617-624-0234/ Fax: 617-624-0230
Credits -
Written by; Conrad G.. Schneider, Advocacy Director
and L. Bruce Hill, Ph.D., Senior Scientist
Edited by: Maria Padlan
Designed by: Jill Bock Design
Printed by: Spectrum Printing & Graphics, Inc.
This report has been printed on recycled (20%, post consumer
waste).. Processed Chlorine Free (PCF) paper with soy inks.
Acknowledgements -
The John Merck Fund1 The Heinz Endowments, The Beldon Fund,
The New York Community Trust, and The Turner Foundation have
provided support for the Clean Air Task Force Diese/lnitiatlve,
including this report. Dana Lowell and Tom Balon of M.J. Bradley
& Associates and David Schoengold of MSB Energy Associates
provided technical support. Patricia Monahan of the Union of
Concerned Scientists provided valuable comments.
February 2005
. f
Foreword
Scientists have been examining relationships between air pollution and death and disease for decades
but only now are we beginning to understand the impacts of one of the most toxic sources of emissions
today - the diesel engine. Diesels chum out a hazardous mix of gaseous and particle pollutants. Whafs
more, diesel exhaust is emitted at ground level - where
we breathe it -- by trucks and buses around us in traffic!, at
school and transit bus stops,. and by heavy construction or
agricultural equipment. Diesel exhaust contains numerous
dangerous compounds, ranging from respiratory irritants
to carcinogens including a host of air toxies, particulate
matter, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides.
White scientists have concluded that combustion-
related particulate matter from all combustion sources is
associated with premature death from heart attacks and
cancer, we also are finding that carbon particles from
mobile sources may be particularly unhealthy. These
particles adsorb other metals and toxic gases produced
by diesel engines - such as cancer causing-PAH (poJycy~
cUe aromatic hydrocarbons) - onto their surfaces making them even more dangerous. Furthermore,
research on personal exposures demonstrates that these small particles easily penetrate our indoor
environment where they may be trapped for days when ventilation is poor~
This report presents for the first time estimates of the health toU from diesel vehicle pollution. Using
methodology approved by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Science Advisory Board (SAB),
the analysis finds that approximately 21,000 people die prematurely each year due to particulate matter
pollution from diesels. Other serious adverse health impacts include tens of thousands of heart attacks,
asthma attacks, and other respiratory ailments that can lead to days missed at work and at school.
Using more highly time-resolved studies we are increasingly able to understand the inflammation
mechanism by which particles can lead to atherosclerosis, heart attacks" strokes and ultimately)' untimely
deaths.. From aU we know today, we can confidenUy say that reducing diesel' exhaust in our environment
will mean improving publiC health, and as this report demonstrates, reducing preventable premature
deaths~ We do not need to wait Technology is available today that can reduce particulate matter emis-
sions by up to 90 percent. Now is the time to clean up our old trucks, buses, heavy equipment and
locomotives to provide a cleaner future for us and our children.
I1/tI V\t).
Howard Frumkin, M.D., Dr..P:H., FACP, FACOEM
Professor and Chair; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health
Emory University, Rollins School of Public Health
1
l f
Executive Summary
EYf!ryone has experienced it: getting hit right in the face by
a cloud of acrid diesel smoke. Perhaps you were standing
on,~ street corner when a bus or truck whizzed by. Or
maybe you were standing at a bus stop or stuck behind a
dump truck grinding up a hill. But breathing diesel exhaust
isn~t just unpleasant. It is hazardous to your health. In fact,
health research indicates that the portion of the exhaust
you can't see may be the most dangerous of all. Asthma
attacks, respiratory disease, heart attacks, and even
premature death - all of these are among the most serious
public health problems linked to emissions from the
nation's fleet of diesel vehicles. The good news is that the
technology exists right now to dean up emissions from
these engines, so that most of the adverse health impacts average diesel vehicle is nearly 30 years. Many diesels are
can be prevented. driven over a million miles. Because of this ,longevity, we
Today in the U.S. more than 13 million diesel vehicles wilt be left with the legacy of pollution from dirty diesel
help to build our cities and towns, transport our food and vehicles for decades to come. That is, unless we take
goods, and take' us to and from work. More than three action to reduce emissions from vehicles currentfy on the
quarters of aU Americans live near intersections,. bus stops, road~ We don't have to wait. Control technologies exist
highways, bus and truck depots, or construction sites with right now that can significantly reduce deadly fine particle
heavy equipment - aU of which are concentrated sources emissions from diesel vehicles,. in some cases by upwards
of diesel exhaust In rural areas" those who live near heavy of 90 percent
diesel 8,gricuftural equipment suffer their share of exposure American know-how, witnessed by the success of the
to diesel as wen. manufacturers of engines, control devices, and fuel refiners
The U ~s. Environmental Protection Agency has issued in developing innovative solutions for reducing dieset
important regulations that vvill require dramatic reductions exhaust, provides a lifesaving opportunity we can seize
in emissions from new diesel vehicles starting in 2007 - but today. PoUution from dirty diesels on the road now can be
only the new ones. These regulations, to be phased in over dramatically reduced using a combination of cleaner fuels,
the next quarter century, apply only to new engines. What retrofit emission controls, rebuilt engines, engine
about the diesels on the road today? The lifespan of the repowerings, and accelerated purchase of new, cleaner
vehicles. Unlike so many other vexing
environmental issues, these afford-
able solutions present a highly
unusual opportunity to actually
address a major risk to public health
and the environment. In fact, we could
virtually eliminate this problem if
diesel manufacturers, fleet owners,
environmentafists1 concerned citizens,
and government regulators make the
commitment to work together.
An Aggressive Program to
Reduce Diesel Emissions
Could Save About 100,000
Lives between Now and
the Year 2030.
2
I t
What are the health impacts of these dirty diesel lost work days~ Together with the toJl of premature
vehicles? What benefits will we realize if we act now to deaths, the health damages from diesel fine particles
clean them up? The Clean Air Task Force commissioned will total $139 billion in 2010.
Abt Associates, an highly-respected consulting firm that . Nationally, diesel exhaust poses a cancer risk that is
U.S. EPAand other agencies rely upon to assess the 7.5 times higher than the combined total cancer risk
benefits of national air quality poHcies, to quantify for the from aft other air taxics.
first time the health impacts of fine particle air pollution . In the U.S., the average lifetime nationwide cancer risk
from America's diesel. fleet.. Using this information, we were
able to estimate the expected benefits - in lives saved - due to diesel exhaust is over 350 times greater than the
from an aggressive but feasible program to clean up dirty level UaS. EPA considers to be "acceptable" (Le., one
diesel buses, trucks, and heavy equipment across the U.S. cancer per million persons over 70 years).
This report summarizes the findings of the Abt Associ- . Residents from more than two-thirds of aU U.S. counties
ates study. Jt then reviews the degree to which diesel face a cancer risk from diesel exhaust greater than 100
vehicles increase the level of fine particle pollution in the deaths per million population.. People living in eleven
air we breathe, and recommends reduction measures that urban counties face diesel cancer risks greater than
win save thousands of lives each year. 1,000 in a million - one thousand times the level EPA
Key findings include: says is acceptable.
. Reducing diesel fine particle emissions 50 percent by . People who live in metropolifan areas with a high
2010, 75 percent by 2015, and 85 percent by 2020 concentration of diesel vehicles and traffte feel their
woufd save nearly 100,000 lives between now and 2030_ impacts most acutely. The risk of lung cancer from
These are additional lives saved above and beyond the diesel exhaust for people living in urban areas is three
projected impact of EPNs new engine regulations. times that for those living in rural areas..
. Fine particle pollution from diesels shortens the lives of The vast majority of the deaths due to dirty diesels
nearly 21,000 people each year. This includes almost could be avoided by an aggressive program over the next
3,000 early deaths from lung cancer. 15 years to require cleanup of the nation's existing diesel
. Tens of thousands of Americans suffer each year from fleet Practical1 affordable solutions are available that can
asthma attacks (over 400,000), heart attacks (27,000), achieve substantial reductions in diesel risk.. The only thing
and respiratory problems associated with fine particles that stands between us and dramatically healthier air is the
from diesel vehictesA These iUnesses result in thou- political wiU to require these reductions and the funding to
sands of emergency room visits, hospitalizations, and make it a reality.
What We Must Do to Protect Public Health from raday's
Dirty Diesels.
Although the EPA has mandated the phase-in of cleaner legislation, or both may be needed. Funding for such
fleW-engines and fuels beginning in 2007 for highway initiatives may pose a challenge for public fleets (school
;vehicles and heavy equipment, EPA has limited authority to buses, transit vehicles, garbage trucks, etc.), so support for
mandate emissions controls on the fleet of existing diesel expanded state and federal funding to help the cleanup of
vehicles.. To date, EPA has adopted a "voJuntaryn approach. fleets owned by cash-strapped states and cities will be
Nevertheless, in order to meet the new ambient air quality necessary. Local and state budget writers wilt need a
standards for fine particles, states and cities must require strong commitment to come up with the necessary appro-
controls to reduce- diesel emjssions~ Diesel deanup is also priations or bonds to fund the local share.
an important next step in areas that are having difficulty Particle filters combined with the use of Ultra Low
meeting existing and new ambient air quality standards for Sulfur Diesel (ULSD) fuel have been found to reduce diesel
ozone such as Houston and DaUas, Texas. particles and particle-bound toxics from diesel exhaust by
States can enact legislation requiring diesel cleanup as up to 90 percent. Under the new engine rules, ULSD wilt be
some, such as California and Texas, have already begun to- available for highway vehicles nationwide starting in 2006.
do. States should also consider measures to require early It is already available in cities in 21 states. Not all vehicles
engine retirement and speed fleet tumover. For vehicles can be retrofitted with a particle fitter, but there are a
like long-haul trucks, ships, and locomotives that are variety of options available for the cleanup of every vehicle
engaged in interstate transport, federal regulations, federal regardless of make or model year.
3
.
Cities and states should: owners to replace or rebuild high-polluting diesel
. Establish ambitious goals for reducing risk to their engines;
citizens by cleaning up existing diesels; . Adopt and enforce anti-idling ordinances and legislation.
. Identify priority geographic areas and diesel ~otspots" The Federal government should:
for immediate attention; . Pass legislation providing funding for the cleanup of
. Adopt a package of options for reducing diesel exhaust municipal and state fleet vehicles;
including: . Explore regulatory options for reducing emissions from
- Retrofits accomplished by replacing mufflers with an existing interstate fleets such as long-haul trucks,
optimal mix of filters or oxidation catalysts depending shipping, and locomotives;
on vehicle age and type; . Retain and enforce the tighter new engine and cleaner
- Requiring Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel and cleaner fuel standards for highway and non-road diesefs~
alternative fuels;
- Closed crankcase ventilation systems to eliminate
engine exhaust from penetrating the cabin of
vehicles such as school and transit buses;
- Engine rebuild and replacement requirements;
- Truck stop electrification programs to give long-haul
truckers a way to power their rigs overnight without
running their engines;
~ Contract specifications requiring cleanup of trucks
and construction equipment used in public works
projects.
. Adopt diesel cleanup measures as federalfy-enforce-
able requirements in state Implementation Plans (SIPs)
for the attainment of the fine particle and ozone air
quality standards;
. Create and fund programs, such as California's "Carl Retrofits are effective in reducing particle emissions from heavy
Moyer" and the Texas Emission Reduction Plan (TERP) equipment. The tractor on the left is retrofitted with a particle
program, which provide funding for diesel equipment emissions control device.
New Findings
While numerous medical studies have linked diesel can penetrate deep into the lung and enter the blood-
exhaust to a host of serious adverse health outcomes, no stream, carrying with them an array of toxins~4 Diesel
single study has yet quantified the death and disease exhaust can contain 40 hazardous air pollutants as listed
attributable to diesel across America - until now. Research... by EPA, 15 of which are listed by the International Agency
ers estimate that as many as 60,000 people in the u.s. die for Research on cancer (IARC) as known, probable or
prematurely each year because of exposure to fine possible human carcinogens. S Thousands of studies also
particles from aU sources.1 And some researchers believe have documented that fine particles are associated with
that this figure may even underestimate the total number of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and death~
particle-related deaths.2 A reanalysis of the major particle Additional studies have documented effects in infants and
mortality study in over 150 cities suggests that particles children such as Sudden Infant Death syndrome (SIDS)
from motor vehicles may be more toxic than average.3 and retarded lung developmentS
We know that diesel exhaust is a hazardous mixture of Nowr for the first time, this report reveals the staggering
gases and particles including carcinogens, mutagens, toU of death and disease from diesel exhaust in our air -
respiratory irritants or inflammatory agents and other toxins and the dramatic benefits of requiring the cleanup of the
that cause a range of diverse hearth effects. Diesel nation's existing diesel fleet. Abt Associates, using peer..
particles act like magnets for toxic organic chemicals and reviewed, state--of-the-art research methodology employed
metals. The smallest of these particles (uUrafine particles) by U.S. EPA in assessing the national benefits of proposed
4
National Annual Diesel Fine Particle ture deaths per year that could be avoided by achieving a
Health Impacts 7 75 percent diesel...risk-reduction target exceed the 11,000
automobile fatalities avoided each year through the use of
Annual Cases in the U..S.., 2010 safety belts. 11
Premature Deaths 21,000 The Abt Associates analysis further shows that
hundreds of thousands of Americans suffer from asthma
lung Cancer Deaths 3,000 attacks, cardiac problems, and respiratory ailments
Hospital Admissions 15,000 associated with fine particles from diesels~ These hearth
Emergency Room Visits for Asthma 15,000 damages result in thousands of respiratory and cardio-
Non..fatal Heart Attacks 27,000 pulmonary related hospitalizations and emergency room
visits annually as well as hundreds of thousands of lost
Asthma Attacks 410,000 work days each year. For instance, the study finds that
Chronic Bronchitis 12,000 diesel pollution leads to 27,000 heart attacks and 400,000
Work Loss Days 2,400,000 asthma attacks each year.12
Restricted Activity Days 14,000,000 You can find the adverse health impacts from diesel for
JUS nor !! : J! I . your state, metropolitan area, and county on the web at:
www.catf.usfgoto/dieselhealth.
rules and legislation, finds that nearly 21,000 people will The risk from diesel exhaust can be virtually eliminated
die prematurefy in 2010 in the U.S. as a result of exposure by the application of emissions control strategies available
to fine particle emissions from mobile diesel sources (i.e.., today. For example, an aggressive but feasible program to
aU on-and non--road engines such as highway, construction, reduce diesel pamcle emissions nationwide 50 percent by
rail, and marine engines)~ The average number of life- 20101 75 percent by 2015, and 85 percent by 2020 would
years lost by those who die prematurely from exposure to save about 100,000 lives between now and 2030 - beyond
fine particles is 14 years"S those lives that win be saved under EPA's new engine
The deaths from diesel fine particle pollution equal or regulations.13 Indeed, in fhe year 2000, the State of
exceed the death toU from other causes commonly California set a Diesel Risk Reduction goal of a 7S percent
understood to be major public policy priorities. For in- reduction in diesel risk by 2010 and 85 percent by 2020
stanceJ drunk driving causes more than 17,000 deaths per and the California Air Resources Board over the past few
year..9 There are more than 20,000 homicides in the U.S. years has begun to issue regulations to achieve it.14
each year.10 Moreover, the approximately 15,000 prema-
Cancer Risk .i
CATF has calculated the national average lifetime excess 48 per million.18
cancer risk posed by diesel. We base these estimates on Therefore, diesel ,:~1'if~
.
1999 modeled direcUy-emitted diesel fine particle concen- exhaust presents a W2~.
trations and by applying both the EPA range of individuar lung cancer risk that is I
risk estimates and the California Air Resources Board 7..5 times higher than
(CARB) dieset risk factor for lung cancer over the U.S. the cancer risk of aU .fij
population. 15 Although EPA has found diesel exhaust to be other air toxies -
a "likely" human carcinogenf EPA has not adopted a risk combined!19 In
factor but has, instead, provided a range of lung cancer addition, CATF has I
risk.16 Based on the national average diesel particulate calculated the cancer
matter concentration, we find average lung cancer risk risk posed by diesel
ranges from 12 to 1210 per mHfron people over a 70-year for residents of each U.S. county. Residents of over two-
lifetime using EPNs range of lung cancer risk.17 Using the thirds of U.S. counties experience a cancer risk greater
same methodology, CATF finds that, based on the single than 100 in a million from diesel exhaust. Moreover,
CARB risk factor, the nationwide average lifetime cancer residents of eleven urban U .,S. counties face a diesel
risk posed by diesel exhaust is over 350 times greater than cancer risk equal to 1,000 new cases of cancer in a
EPA's "acceptable" level of one cancer in a million~ population of one million.
For comparison, according to EPf\s 1999 NATA People who live in metropolitan areas with a high con-
assessment, the combined risk from an other air toxics is centration of diesel vehicles and traffic feel their impacts
5
)
most acutely. For example, the estimated risk of lung You can find the community cancer risk from diesel for
cancer from diesel in metropolitan areas is much higher your state, metropolitan area, and county on the web at:
than in areas with fewer diesels. In the rural counties we www.catf.uslgotoldieselhealth,. Personal risk varies with
estimate a risk of 142 cancers per million based on the location and lifestyle. For example, if you live near a bus,
CARB unit risk, but three times that rate, 415 cancer per truck, or train tenninal, highway, construction site, or
million, in urban counties. Therefore, the risk of lung cancer warehouse, or commute to work on congested roadways,
for people living in urban areas is three times that for those your exposure may be higher than indicated by the county-
living in rural areas.2O wide average estimated here.
The Economic Toll of Health Effects
Respiratory distress severe enough to require a trip to the
emE)rgency room can be a terrifying experience for patients
and their families. Victims of asthma attacks say that during
an attack they wonder if and when their next breath will
come. In addition to its serious physical and emotional
costs, air pollution also takes a large monetary tofL
Emergency room and hospital treatment costs can cripple
a family financiaUy, with the average stay for a respiratory
ailment lasting about a week,.21 Bouts of respiratory illness
and asthma attacks mean lost workdays and lost productiv-
ity. Although life is priceless, the government often mon-
etizes loss of life when setting policies related to health and
environmental protection. Using accepted valuation
methodology employed by EPA in recent regulatory impact
analyses, Abt Associates finds that the total monetized cost
of the U.S.. diesel fleet's fine particle poUution is a stagger- PoJJu!jon from motor vehicles, including djesels~ can obscure
ing $139 billion in 2010. city vistas such as iIJustrated in this split view of Dallas. Texas.
State and Metropolitan Area Findings
Using modeled concentrations of directly-emitted diesel vehicles feel the impacts of diesel pollution most acutely~ 23
fine partides throughout the lower 48 states, Abt Associ- In such large metropolitan areas, m'any hundreds of fives
ates developed health impact estimates for every state and are shortened every year. However} because these state
major metropolitan area in 1999, the fatest year for which and metropolitan-area health estimates incfude only fine
EPNs best emissions inventory for diesel fine particles is particles that are directly emitted from diesels - excluding
available.22 Not surprisingly, anysecondan~4onned
heavily populated states particles from diesel
with concentrated urban emissions of nitrogen or
areas and significant diesel sulfur oxides - they
traffic fared the worst. significantly understate the
Conversely, rural areas with total adverse impact of
a lower concentration of diesel-related particles on
diesel vehicles fared much pUblic health" 24 Moreover,
better" Similarly) metropoli- these estimates exclude
tan areas with large any health impacts due to
populations and heavy dj'esers contribution to
concentrations of diesel ozone smog.
6
II States: Health Impacts from Diesel Fine Particles (1999)
Cancer Heart Asthma Chronic Work Loss Restricted
Rank State Deaths Deaths Attacks Attacks Bronchitis Days Activity Days
1 New York 2,332 169 3,692 51,251 1A99 318,532 1,827,525
2 California 1 ,784 144 2,263 49,499 1 ,356 292,622 1,683,642
3 Pennsyivania 1,170 103 1 ,660 19,021 575 110~404 643,926
4 New Jersey 880 77 1 ,382 17,926 535 107,364 620,975
5 Texas 879 83 1,070 25,348 664 148,394 854,045
6 Ufinois 878 76 1,193 19,162 539 112,205 649,445
7 Florida 805 77 980 13,926 438 81,462 474,601
8 Ohio 769 72 1,002 14,464 422 83,963 489,355
9 Michigan 484 43 667 10,511 299 61,109 355,260
10 Massachusetts 475 43 727 9,925 289 61 ,842 355,473
11 Maryland 409 39 454 8,418 246 50,275 291,675
12 Indiana 369 36 483 7.372 209 42,730 249,056
13 Georgia 329 29 377 8,514 235 51,808 298,317
14 Louisiana 324 32 339 7,131 188 40f740 236,444
15 Missouri 305 28 377 5.435 157 31,476 183,033
16 North Carolina 301 29 347 6,518 189 39,589 229,591
17 Tennessee 269 26 283 5,169 150 30,870 179,656
18 Washington 248 23 308 6,201 181 37,787 218,889
19 Virginia 248 24 303 5,991 174 36,963 214,083
20 Wisconsin 226 18 320 4,789 137 27,923 162,404
21 Arizona 214 19 268 5,215 144 30,053 173,721
22 Connecticut 206 18 340 4,091 125 24,097 140,140
23 Kentucky 198 22 213 3,764 110 22,385 130 A03
24 Minnesota 193 15 291 4,713 134 27,979 161,954
25 Alabama 175 16 184 3.200 92 18.646 108,961
II Metro Areas: Health Impacts from Diesel Fine 'Particles (1999)
Metropolitan Cancer Heart Metropolitan Cancer Heart
Area Rank Deaths Deaths Attacks Area- Rank Deaths Deaths Attacks
New York, ,NY 1 2,729 202 4,342 San Diego, CA 21 150 13 191
los-Angeles, CA 2 918 72 1,193 Portland, OR 22 140 13 157
Chicago, It 3 755 65 1,021 Minneapolis,MN 23 133- 11 205
Philadelphia, PA 4 727 69 990 New Orleans, LA 24 128 13 131
Boston, MA 5 391 36 602 Riverside, CA 25 123 10 142
Houston, TX 6 356 35 444 Baton Rouge, LA 26 102 10 109
San Francisco, CA 7 291 23 358 Milwaukee, WI 21 95 8 130
Miami, FL 8 288 23 358 Columbus, OH 28 84 9 113
Baltimore, MO 9 285 28 290 Indianapolis, IN 29 82 8 107
Detroit Mf 10 279 25 378 LouisvUle, KY 30 82 9 91
Pittsburgh, PA 11 237 21 340 Memphis, TN 31 81 7 79
Washington, DC 12 226 19 302 Kansas City, MO 32 79 8 109
St Louis, MO 13 217 20 263 Providence, RJ 33 76 7 119
DaUas. TX 14 205 19 258 Bridgeport, CT 34 69 6 121
Atlanta, GA 15 199 17 239 Beaumont, TX 35 65 7 65
Tampa, FL 16 185 18 210 Ortando,FL 36 65 7 85
Phoenix" AZ 17 183 16 230 Allentown, PA 37 65 5 101
CJevetand,OH 18 180 15 232 Hartford, CT 38 63 5 100
Cincinnati, OH 19 171 18 219 las Vegas, NV 39 62 7 71
Seaffie, WA 20 165 15 208 Virginia Beach, VA 40 62 6 65
7
II Metro Areas: Per Capita impacts from Diesel Fine Particles (1999)
Rank Deaths Heart Cancer Rank Deaths Heart Cancer
Based on per Attacks per Risk Based on per Attacks per Risk
Mortality 100,000 100,000 per Mortality 100,000 100,000 per
Risk MSA Adults Adults Million Risk MSA Adults Adults Million
1 Beaumont TX 29 29 865 26 Portland t OR 13 14 488
2 Baton Rouge, LA 27 29 992 27 Bridgeport, CT 13 22 494
3 New York, NY 25 40 959 28 Harrisburg, PA 12. 19 412
4 Philadelphia, PA 22 29 658 29 York, PA 12 21 460
5 Trenton, NJ 20 31 699 30 Wheeling,WV 12 14 309
6 Baltimore. MD 19 19 584 31 Lebanon,PA 12 19 3,73
7 Huntington, WV 18 18 477 32 EvansviHe, IN 12 15 368
8 New Orleans, LA 17 18 889 33 Memphis. TN 12 12 397
9 Pittsburgh, PA 15 22 415 34 Savannah. GA 12 13 376
10 Cincinnati, OH 15 19 504 35 Dayton, OH 12 16 389
11 Boston, MA 15 23 563 36 Vinetand, NJ 12 17 365
12 Chicago, It 15 20 539 37 Tampa, FL 12 14 365
13 Mobile, AL 14 15 435 38 Louisville. KY 12 13 384
14 longview, WA 14 15 441 39 Sandusky. OH 12 15 345
15 Houston J TX 14 18 691 40 Kankakee.IL 12 14 336
16 Allentown, PA 14 22 450 41 San Francisco, CA 12 14 480
17 Cleveland,OH 14 18 416 42 Muncie, IN 11 14 321
18 Toledo, OH 14 17 423 43 Duluth, MN 11 14 308
19 Los Angeles. CA 14 18 633 44 Michigan City, IN 11 15 370
20 Lancaster, PA 14 22 463 45 Salt lake City, ur 11 14 533
21 Scranton, PA 14 18 319 46 New Haven, CT 11 18 365
22 St.louis, MO 14 17 405 47 SteubenviUe,OH 11 13 279
23 Reading J PA 14 21 428 48 Milwaukee, WI 11 15 376
24 Lake Charles. LA 14 14 437 49 South Bend, IN 11 15 342
25 Springfield. OH 13 16 356 50 Detroit, Mt 11 15 381
The Dirty Diesel Legacy
Since 1997, the U.S. EPAhas promulgated major regula- for particulate
tionsthat impose stringent emissions controls on new matter and
diesel vehicles, requiring tight emission standards and nitrogen oxides
cleaner diesel fuel. These standards go into effect in 2007 from trucks and
and phase in over the next few decades. For example, the buses over the
table below illustrates the progressively tighter standards next few years.
However, the
emission rates of
the diesel engines on the road and in use on construction
sites and fanns today are not affected by these rules.
YEAR MOx PM~5 Considering that according to the U.S. Department of
Energy the median lifetime for a heavy truck is nearly 30
1984 10.7 0.60 years,26 and a typical heavy duty diesel engine may power
1'991 5.0 0.25 a truck for as long as one and a half million miles,27 these
1998 4.0 0..10 vehicles will continue to pollute our air at unnecessarily
high levels for years to come unless we act to clean
2004 2..0 0.10 them up now.
2007 0.2 0..01
8
1000/0 -: ,:,~,.-,:, "'::\''',,,<_~,:,:_
W
ro(.)
~-
u>
::>0::
a:UJ
.....00
f-C)
z~ 400/0
Wz Median Heavy Truck
u-
!roe:(
w~ Lifetime is Nearly
o..W 20% 30 Years 28
a:
00/0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
VEHICLE AGE (YEARS)
;-;-t'1 ~ !IE ~ ~ ~ Te ~ t ~ e p 11 _~ 6
!n~ !\i!n~T \/Vlnp~nrp~Q A lr "" DIlUIIOn
..L .i ~ l. .; ..L v v __ 'W'.Ji.. '-A. '-'" LJIi J.-'.L "-' 'LJL .L .1..1.. ..L
........... "'IiI <II .J ., TT 0
J; -= 1 0-1 ~ -~ i r. .- r. P I! ~
1<,- ::; }<,.. .l11 Li 1 ~ '-' e - .
There are few other sources of widespread pollution in our
environment that rival diesel exhaust as an airborne toxin.
America's 13 million diesel engines release a host of harm-
ful substances including fine particles1 ozone smog-forming
nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and a variety of toxic
metals and organic gases such as formaldehyde, acrolein,
and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH.)29In this
report we focus on the respiratory, cardiovascular, and
cancer effects of diesel fine particles only.30
Fine Particles are Linked to Heart
Attacks, Asthma Attacks, and
Stunted Lung Growth.
Fine, particles have been linked to a wide variety of serious
health impacts, from upper and lower respiratory ailments1
,such as asthma attacks and possible asthma onset, to
heart attacks, stroke, and
premature death, including
crib death in children.31 How standards were established for fine particles in 1997.34
risky is breathing air polluted Health researchers have recently described serious
with particles? A study pub- health impacts of fine particles, including:
Jished in the Journal of the . Abnormal heart rhythms and heart attacks and athero-
American Medical Associa- scterosis;35
tion found that living in the Increased incidence of stroke;36
most polluted U.S. cities .
poses a risk similar to living . Permanent respiratory damage, characterized by
with a smoker.32 Based on fibrosis causing obstruction to airflow;37
thousands of studies com- . Chronic adverse effects on lung devetopment resulting
piled by EPA, federal health in deficits in lung function.38
9
Diesel Exhaust is a Likely Carcinogen that also Impairs Immune,
Reproductive, and Nervous Systems.
In 1998, the Scientific Review Panel for the California Air Applying California's cancer unit risk for diesel partiCU-
Resources Board reviewed diesel exhaust as a toxic air late matter to the national average concentration of
contaminant and set a lifetime unit cancer risk from diesel directly-emitted diesef fine particles in 1999, results in a
particles at 3 in 10,000 persons for each microgram of conservative estimate of 1,530 excess cases of lung
annual average diesel exposure.39 This is equivalent to 300 cancer per year for 2005.42 An American Cancer Society
in a million excess lung cancers. In May 2002, EPA issued study of 150 metropolitan areas across the U.S published
its Health Assessment for Diesel Exhaust which found in 2002 supports the particulate matter cancer link.43
diesel particulate matter to be a "likely" carcinogen. EPA Other effects include:
did not settle on a unit risk factor but recommended a . Immune System Effects - Diesel exposure is associ-
lifetime cancer risk range from 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 100,000.40 ated with numerous immune system responses in
The California unit risk falls within this range.4t humans and animals culminating in increased allergic
inflammatory responses and suppression of infection-
Diesel particles are carbon at their core fighting ability. These effects include disruption of
with toxies and carcinogenic substances chemical signals and production of antibodies, and an
attached to their surfaces. alteration in mobilization of infectfon...fighting ceJJs.44
. Reproductive, Developmental, and Endocrine
Toxics Effects - Diesel emissions have also been associated
with reproductive, developmental and endocrine effects
in animals. Specificafly, diesel exposure has been
Metal$ associated in animals with decreased sperm produc-
tiont 45 masculinization of rat tetuses,46 changes in fetal
StJcondary'Sulfate. development (thymus,47 bone48 and nervous system49)
and Nitrate and endocrine disruption, i.e., production of adrenal
and reproductive hormones.5O
Organic; CarbOn . Nervous System Effects - In addition to animal
Compounds studies that have shown neurodevelopmentaJ effects, a
human study of railroad workers suggested that diesel
Elemental exposure may have caused serious permanent
Carbon 'Core impainnent to the central nervous system. 51
~ ~~ ~ - --.... ~ .. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ """'}-~~"'-" ~~ ~ ~~ ~~ - ~ ~~ ...... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - ....... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .... ~ ~ ~ ..... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~..... ~ ~
~ ~ ....... ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - .... ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ - .... ~ - ~. ~ ~ - ~ -.. ~ ~-
~l~.....~ ):<......y"..............~... <.:...~')..;....~..-:(~ +>:~:,:~"J-i.~7:..<rrr~~~~J:.:.L.....7.'I-:r~-...~~ ~~.....~-t"':'".o;'S"'q'..;:-;;;:';I.r: ~r'f;~.....:..:L':..,;.r~,.:."::i~...."'~~:;:? .f":~:;-~:.,:.::;...~......;.~~':..~~'l:~~~~...........~~oJ,...~-,. ,,~~~~.....-=~ ~~.-- ;,;.~~-::.;:--...4...........o..: ~ &~~~=..-.t-~O"";"';:i.+l.~
::~~,,~~~~~~~~!Ml^;~~~~II~~~,i~;;r~'e~'1..~~~~~~~'~7:;;:~'~~~~~.~~~
......:So..-..;..;' ,~~ -.;~:!:...........:~ %~...~,(..-.r~ '"'" &:-;;:""~--'-~.!:A\"'''-A~~''''''~''''' ~~ w:!.k: ~==-"",.\""'........;'~~~....:.i"::.~~~~'::..'Jo~~'~"'''''~~7..~~i!;.~_~~~.(o.T~.....~~~;:u.~~~~-:;r~......~......~"J:...'-'f~'" ....~~........~~~~ 'l;'Il,; ",J.-'::~"VM"!r-'y.~.....~~!;;;:.z.......~~~......
Diesel ,Emissions EPA Cancer Risk (per
0/0 of all Mobile Carcinogen million I microgram
Pollutant 199652 Status in 70..yrUfe)
Formaldehyde 52% probable 1 in a' million
Acetaldehyde 59% probabfe 1 in'8- million
Butadiene 8% probable 2 in a million
Acrolein 50% possible nla
Benzene 5% known 2-8 in a million
Diesel-Particulate 77% probable53 EPA: 12 to 1210 in a
Matter miHion;CARB: 300
in a million54
10
Children and Seniors are at Greatest Risk
Health researchers believe that children
are more susceptible than adults to the
adverse health effects of air pollution for a
variety of reasons~55 For example, children
are more active than adults and therefore
breathe more rapidly.. Children also have
more lung surface area compared to their
body weight and therefore they inhale
more air pound-for-pound than adults do..
Compared to adults, children also have
higher lung volume to body size, higher
respiration rates, and spend more active
time in the polluted outdoor environment.
Fine particles have been linked in medical
studies to serious health impacts in
children such as slowed lung function
growth, increased emergency room visits,
increased incidences of asthma and
bronchitis, and crib death. Furthermore,
proximity to traffic has been linked to
increased- prevalence of asthma respira-
tory infections and allergic symptoms and
asthma hospitalizations in children. 56
Seniors are another important
population at risk. Studies of the impacts
of fine particles on seniors in Boston and
Baltimore suggest that changes in their
heart rhythms and control mechanisms
occur when particle levers rise. In
Phoenix, daily mortality increased in
11
8
seniors with increased levels of elemental and organic elevated fine particle levels put the elderly at risk and
carbon (typjcal of diesels and other motor vehicles) and suggest a possible mechanistic link between fine particles
fine particles~ Collectively, these studies demonstrate that and cardiovascular disease mortality.59
raday's Dirty Diesels
. "On..road" or highway diesels include many types of
vehicles, such as municipal and commercial trucks and
buses. Heavy duty highway diesels range from 8,500 Ibs to
those exceeding 60,000 Ibst such as 18-wheelers. Of the
seven million diesels on the road today, 400,000 are schoof
buses and 70,000 are transit buses. Highway diesels
released 100,000 tons of directly-emitted fine particles in
2002, about one third of the total from diesels. Highway
diesels also released 3..4 million tons of nitrogen oxides
(NOx) in 2002, which accounted for 16 percent of all NOx
emissions and half of all diesel NOx emissions in the U~S~ 60
. "Non..road" diesel engines and equipment do not typically
travel on roads or highways. There were approximately six
million non-road diesel engines in service in 2003.. Examples of
these non-road diesels include construction equipment such as
excavators, mining equipment and agricultural machinery. In
2002, 155,000 tons or half of all the fine particles directly emit-
ted from diesels came from non-road engines. Non-road diesels
also released 1.6 million tons of NOX1 8 percent of all NOx
emissions and one quarter of all diesel NOx emissions in the
U..S. in 2002.61
. Marine and river diesel emissions are dominated by large
commercial ships polluting our largest ocean and river port
cities.. Efforts to control pollution from shipping have focused
on NOx, although these engines also emit substantial
quantities of flne particles~ In 2002 marine diesel released
40,000 tons of directly-emitted fine particles, 13 percent of
all diesel fine particles in the U.S. Marine diesels in the U.S.
produced one minion tons of diesel NOx in 2002, 5 percent
of all U~S~ NOx emissions and 14 percent of an diesel NOx
emissions.52
. Locomotive diesels account for a significant fraction of mobile
source emissions in the U~S. today.. In many areas, diesel trains
travel through and pollute core urban and industrial areas.
Diesel locomotives released 20,000 tons of directly-emitted
diesel fine particles (six percent of an diesel fine particles) and
900,000 tons NOx (13 percent of diesel NOx)' Diesel locomo-
tives typically have a useful life of 40 years and are commonly
rebuilt S..10 times during their long service lives. For this reason,
cleaning up loday's locomotives is an important priority~63
12
..
Railroad l
6%
Marine I
130/0
Highway
Non-Road Diesel
Other 31%
4%
Non-Road- Sources of Directly-Emitted
Agriculture Mobile Diesel Fine Particles
210/0 Source-; EPA (2004)
Non-Road~ Non-Road
Industrial Construction
40/0 21%
Diesel "Hotspots"
Diesel Exhaust is Concentrated
Near Roadways and Intersections.
Unlike industrial smokestack emissions, diesel typically is
emitted at ground-level in places of concentrated popula-
tion in our communities along busy streets and at our
places of work. We often breathe diesel exhaust where it is
fresh and most toxic. While air quality modelingy such as
reported in our study, estimates average exposures in a
community, your individual exposure may be much greater
or smaller depending on a variety of factors. For example,
the distance from where you live to major roadways and facilities face the greatest risk. Numerous recent
the nature of your commute to work m'ay playa role. medical studies have linked roadway proximity and
Exposure to diesel exhaust is highest for those who: traffic pollution to disease, asthma hospitalizations, and
. Operate or work around diesel engines - Occupa- shortened life expectancy.65 For example, a 2004 study
tional exposures to diesel are among the highest and in Ontario, Canada found increased risk of mortality
have been associated with increased incidence of from heart and lung disease in people living within 100
cancer. Furthermore, a study of diesel mechanics, train meters of a roadway.66 New York City studies demon-
crewmen, and electricians working in a closed space strate that diesel trucks create air tox;es hot spots at
near diesel generators suggests that diesel exposure crossings, bus stops, and bus depots.67 Rail yards can
may have caused both airway obstruction and serious be diesel hotspots as well. For example, one study
impairment to the central nervous system. The report found elevated risk levels - up to 500 in a million -
concludes that "impaired crews may be unable to adjacent to a Califomia rail yard.68 Another study found
operate trains safely.''64 elevated cancer risk for persons riving near a ferry
. Live or work near areas where diesel emissions are port.89
concentrated - Ambient diesel levels are highest near . Regularly ride on schoof or transit buses, or
highways, busy roadways, bus depots, construction commuter trains - Children are exposed to elevated
sites, railroad yards, ports and inland waterways with levels of dresel as a result of the buildup of die-sel
diesel boat traffic, major bridges, tunnels, or freight exhaust inside schoof buses - especially with windows
warehouses. People who live or work near these closed.70 Diesel exhaust levels on commuter trains and
13
1
People living and working
near concentrated diesel
emissions such as busy
roadways have the greatest
exposure to diesel exhaust.
station platforms may also be
high.71
. Commute daily in heavy
traffic - Commuters are
exposed to some of the highest
diesel emissions in their cars
due to poHutants released from
trucks and buses on the road with them. Car occupants Diesel exhaust from trucks and buses can be found in
riding behind a diesel bus; for example, can experience places we don't expect For example it can be trapped in
extremely high levels of dangerous fine particles. "urban canyons" and penetrate buildings through HVAC
Researchers in Los Angeles measured high fine particle systems.
levels (130 ug/m3) behind an urban transit bus making Exposure to diesel exhaust is also an Environmental
numerous stopS..72 Exposures to drivers can have Justice issue. Concentration of minority and low-income
serious effects: a 2004 study suggests that young male populations are more likely to be found in cities near-diesel
state troopers experienced cardiac inflammation and sources. Because these neighborhoods are exposed to
heart rhythm changes from in-vehicle exposure to fine some of the highest diesel exhaust levels, residents are
particles. 73 certain to experience disproportionate health impacts.
-f~;';:!, ~:~~f~~~~'::'~~~, ry %~~: ~, ,'~, l.,~
~ ~ ' .":~:"-",:\";' ~,1" ,,0:..,' ,- ,a'
j ,-'- '"" ~'''.:'',,:,r~:~:', ," -', -;: ~~i;-ir'- -} , ,
. ,:t~ ~: 7 ~.......- ~ -:R,\ "'" :;""'/':..~.-
I ~;tj.. :-j ,':, ""-"1.- : r;,,~:''-.<] ~: "_:\>;
.-,~ ,,:,''-'->-'-'---,..-' ~I' ),..,.,,~~ ~
, ,--' ',;~,,'-', ,It-ii"
;:' .',:" ,- '.- ,-",:'" ~::,:.) ,,", l
X'i"\',,, ! ......,i , ...'... 'J'I,';' ", ", . ~, _ ..'
.~
_ : ;':.- i ~~ ,'. --- ." ';"-:::~~,-.;," y; .
...;" 'll1iIt{:.' ~ Percentile
, ,,_ ::::,-:-.. ,,- . Most Polluted > :
':,:,-:":,,,..:' , 0' .,.. 80..100
:,:,'>4t{.; ~,-
-'~''<', '. ::~? . . ~ " :::
~... 20-40
0-20
Least Poffuted >
I Directly-Emitted Diesel Fine Particle Concentrations
by County in the U.S. (1999)
14
, .;
,
f\ ~olutlon \i\Tith1n fllli "RAarh
.J. '-' ~ ....~ .J. .I. W' '-.A...I..J...I..J. "-' U. .a... ~ '"-' '-" .a. .I.
Diesel Fine Particles Can Be Virtually Eliminated by Emission
Controls Available Today.
Virtually all of the health risk posed by diesel exhaust can as a national goal would help states and municipalities set
be eliminated through the application of emissions control milestones for improvement and would be consistent with
strategies available today. For example, an aggressive but EPA's recently announced goal of retrofitting the entire U.S"
feasible program to reduce diesel particle emissions fleet of diesel vehicles by 2015/5 Indeed, Califomia has
nationwide 50 percent by 2010,,75 percent by 2015, and already set a Diesel Risk Reduction goat of 75 percent
85 percent by 2020 would save about 100,000 lives 2010 and 85 percent by 2020. Over the last few years the
between now and 2030 - beyond those fives that will be California Air Resources Board has begun to issue
saved under EPNs new engine regulations.74 Adopting this regulations to achieve these goals.76
"Retrofit, Rebuild, Replace"
A variety of practical strategies exist to reduce diesel
p~rfide levels in America: tailpipe retrofits, clean fuels,
closed crankcase filtration systems, engine rebuild and
replacement requirements, emission specifications for
vehicles used in public works contracts~ anti-idling ordi-
nances and legislation, truck stop electrification programs,
aggressive fleet turnover policies, and more.
The most cost-effective approach to reducing diesel Installing a diesel
exhaust is likely in many cases to be the direct application particulate filter
of retrofit technology. Although the purchase of new, much (DPF) in this Atlanta
cleaner vehicles will remain an important remedial strategy, school bus simply
the replacement of the entire diesel fleet is an expensive required removal and
replacement of the
proposition that will have to be phased in over time. What's muffler and tailpipe.
more, we can meet the challenge of reducing fine particles
and related air toxies without replacing all vehicles right
now~ Current technology can easily remove particles from pollution from crankcase ventilation in addition to the
diesel exhaust Retrofits that eliminate over 90 percent of tailpipe" This calls for additional strategies" For some
fine particles from a heavy duty diesel bus engine typically vehicles and- model years, replacement may be the best
cost $3,000-$7,500" This;s a small expenditure when option. As a result, fleets will need to develop individualized
compared to the typical $60,000-75,000 price tag for a new strategies that optimize emission reduction from their
school bus or $300,000 for a transit OOs.17 vehicles and equipment. Fortunately, this is not hard to do.
Retrofits are avaifable from many engine manufactur.. Catalyzed diesel particulate- matter filters (DPF) can
ers.. They generally are easy to instaU especially on reduce emissions of fine particles and adsorbed air toxies
highway vehicles. Nonetheless, it is important to point out by over 90 percent. DPFs have been used in thousands of
that retrofits are not a "one size_ fits all" proposition. on- and non-road diesel applications. Diesel oxidation
Retrofitting a fleet calls for careful planning and, often, a catalysts (DOCs) represent a less expensive albeit Jess
mix of strategies that will depend on the- make and model effective option. They are smaller and therefore easier to
year of the engines being retrofitted and funds available. install. EPA has verified that they can reduce total particu-
For example, some heavy-duty engines lack modem rate matter emissions by 10-30 percent. Like the DPF, the
electronic engine controls and are therefore are too old for DOC is also attached to the exhaust system. Installing one
some retrofit devices. Other diesel equipment simply does on a diesel truck or bus costs about $1,000. DOCs may be
not have space for retrofit installation" Duty cycle is an appropriate for vehicles built before 1995 that lack elec~
important consideration too~ Some engines do not run tronic controls and for construction equipment where there
constantly which means that catalytic retrofit devices is inadequate space for a DPF to be installed. DOCs have
requiring consistent high engine temperatures do not been installed in more than 1.5 million trucks in the U.S.78
operate as efficiently. Furthermore, some engines release
15
, .
Low Sulfur Diesel Fuels Are Requisite for Effective
Retrofit Controls.
Diesel particulate filters require low sulfur fuels because can achieve modest reductions in emissions \lVhen used as a
sulfur_in the fuel can foul the emission control device. blend, or higher reductions when. used at 100 percent..
Unfortunately, tow sulfur fuels are not available everywhere Biodiesel is an altemative diesel fuel made from either
in the U.S. today (see http:/twww.epa.govlotaq/retrofitJ animal fats or plants such as soybeans.
fuelsmap~htm for the current fuel availability map). Where
ULSD is available, decision makers should consider
requiring installation of filters where possible. Federal
regulations have established diesel fuel and additive
fonnuJation requirements for on-road vehicles, limiting fuel
sulfur content to 15 ppm nationwide beginning in 2006 for
use with 2007 highway vehicles. Starting rn 2010, non-road
equipment will be required to use ULSD.
Biodiesel is another potential low-sulfur fuel choice that
Ultra low sulfur diesel fuel will be available nationwide mid~2006.
Recommendations
Cities and States Must Act to Reduce Diesel. "~
li:
0
:r:
I-
:)
Ttte fine particle pollution problem is so widespread in the for approval within three ~,,,- 4:
w
U~S. about one quarter of the U.S. population resides in years. Controts must then ~
it
.z
areas that viofate the standard. EPA recently formally be implemented and air a::
:::>
f-
designated over 200 counties in "nonattainmenf' with the quality standards achiev- ~
annual fine particle standard.so Countless additional ed by 2010. For this
commuters may also spend significant time in areas reason t states and cites
exceeding the standard where they work. But the rest of must start now to deter-
the country is not safe from the risk posed by diesel mine how to achieve
partides - science teUs us that particle-related health substanUal emissions Cities should adopt and enforce
impacts don't stop once the standard is achieved. Health reductions. With rules to anti-idling ordinances.
research has shown that there are adverse health impacts reduce particles from
from particles even at very low concentrations.81 power plants pending at EPA and expected to be finalized
Cities and states that have been designated as in the near future, diesel emissions will become the largest
"nonattainment" must act now to achieve meaningful remaining share of the problem and the most cost-effective
reductions in fine particles. For those areas, state imple- solution, one that largely is within the control of states and
mentation plans must be developed and presented to EPA municipalities.
16
Cities and states should:
. Establish ambitious goals for reducing risk to their
citizens by cleaning up existing diesels;
. Identify priority geographic areas and diesel "hotspots"
for immediate attention;
. Adopt a package of options for reducing diesel
exhaust including:
- Retrofits accomplished by replacing mufflers with
an optimal mix of filters or oxidation catalysts
depending on vehide age and type;
- Requiring Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel and deaner Trucks parked at New York Thruway rest area shut off their
altemative fuels; engines and plug into JdJeAire facility for heat and electricity.
- Closed crankcase- ventilation systems to eliminate In New York) over 120,000 kids now ride a schoof bus
engine exhaust from penetrating the cabins of that has had a retrofit kit installed to reduce diesel emis-
school and transit buses; sions. Under city and state law all N6"N York City-sponsored
- Engine rebuild and replacement requirements; construction projects are required to use UlSD and ai'
- Truck stop electrification programs to give long-haul heavy equipment engines at the sites must be retrofitted..
truckers a way to power their rigs overnight without Likewise, Seattle, King County, and the State of Washing-
running their engines; ton have made a solid start on diesel cleanup from on- and
- Contract specifications requiring cleanup of trucks non-road vehicles, an~ ships including a commitment to
and construction equipment used in public works retrofit up to 8,000 school buses using focaf, state, federal,
projects-.. and SEP monies and buy up to 250 new diesel/electric
hybrid buses. Other cities also have made a start. 83
. Adopt diesel cleanup measures as federally-enforce- California and Texas have created funds - the "Carl
able requirements in State Implementation Plans Moyer" program in California and the Texas Emission
(SIPs) for the aftainment of the fine particle and ozone Reduction Program (TERP) - to provide funding for diesel
air quality standards; equipment owners to replace or rebuild high-polluting
. Create and fund programs to provide money for diesel diesel engines.
equipment owners to replace or rebuild high...pofluting
diesel engines; oc
w
~
. Adopt and enforce anti-idling ordinances and legislation.. u-
To meet this challenge, several states and cities have
begun to take action. California continues to lead the way
in reducing diesel emissions: adopting stricter fine particle
air quality standards,- developing a statewide diesel risk
reduction plan, and establishing a state program to clean
up 00- and non-road diesel engines ranging from garbage
trucks to stationary generators.82 When completed, the
California program will regulate emissions from all existing
diesefs within its jurisdiction. Some cities are choosing Diesel Electric Hybrid buses as an
alternative to conventional diesel buses.
Washington Must Support States
States and cities- cannot meet the challenge of diesel existing diesels by 2015 and has established a voluntary
pollution alone. U.S. EPA has recognized the dangers and retrofit program to begin to meet it,,84 Howeverf this
societal costs of diesel exhaust and set tighter emission chaUenge will only be met with an aggressive set of policies
standards for new highway and non-road diesel engines and adequate funding to ensure the goal can be accom-
and mandated the availability beginning in 2006 of Ultra plished.
low Sulfur Diesel (UlSD) fuel nationwide. These require- Many states do not have the resources to clean up
ments must be retained with no backsliding. In addition, state and municipally-owned vehicles_ They will need the
EPA has set a national goal of cleaning up all of America's support of the federal govemment to achieve EPftts goal.
17
,
,
Federal action may also be needed to clean up transient The Federal govemment should:
diesel vehicles, including long...haul trucks, marine diesel . Pass legislation providing funding for the cleanup of
shipping in U.S. ports, and locomotives that typically travel municipal and state fleet vehicles;
from city to city dispersing fheiremissions along travel cor- . Explore regulatory options for reducing emissions from
ridors. Because the Clean Air Act contains limited authority existing interstate fleets such as long-haul trucks,
for EPA to establish national diesel retrofit rules, federal shipping, and locomotives;
legislation will ultimately be needed to establish federal . Retain and enforce the tighter new engine and cleaner
requirements and funding for a national retrofit program for fuel standards for highway and non-road diesels.
all diesel engines as well as these interstate diesels.
Endnotes
1 Wilson. Richard and Spengler, John, eds. Particles in Our Air: Concen- trol of Emissions from Nonrood Diesel Engines." EPA420-R-04-007.
trations and Health Effects (1999) p. 212. (May 2004) http://www.epa.gov/nonroad~dieseV2004fr/420r 04007,pdf.
2 Schwartz, J.,"Air Pollution DeadJier than Previously Thought" Harvard It begins with EPA emissions inventory data. models the dispersion of
SChool of Public Health. Press Release. Mart:h 2, 2000. those emissions using the- Regional Emissions Modeling System for
3 laden, E. Neas. L. Dockery. D. and Schwartz, J.. Association of Fine Acid Deposition (REMSAD) air quali~ model, and the~ appl~ a da~~
age function model using concentratron-response retatlO~hl~s to ~b~
Particulate Matter from Different Sources with DaUy Mortality in Six U.S. mate adverse health endpoints from modeled changes In air quahty.-
Cities, Environmental Heatth Perspectives, Vol. 108. No. 10. (2000) p. This analysis estimates the adverse health endpoints attributable to die..
941-947. sel PM2. 5 in the year 2010. For a summary of CATF's methodology and
4 Nemmar; A. et al.. Passage of Inhaled Particles Into the Blood Circula- FAQs please go to www.catf.us/gotoldieselhealthl and click on "learn
tion in Humans. Circulation. Vol. 105. (2002). 411~414 ; Donaldson. more." For Abt Associates' ASPEN and REMSAD reports please see:
Ken. et at Ambient Particle Inhalation and the Cardiovascular System: www.catf.us/goto/AbtASPEN/ and www.catf.us/goto/AbtREMSAD/.
Potential Mechanisms, Envir. Health Perspectives, Vol. 109. Supp. 4. 13 Estimate is based on EPA methodology described in EPA Memoran~
Aug. 2001, p. 525.1 dum~ Bryan Hubbell to Sam Napolitano. July 2., 2001. Estin:ated N9x.
5 National Center for Environmental Assessment, OffICe of Research and S02 and PM emissions health damages for heavy duty vehicle errns-
Development U.S. EPA. EPAl600/8-90/057F. May 2002. International sions.
Agency on Cancer. Monograph 46. See at: http://www-cie.iarc,frlhtdocsf 14 Through only those diesel regulations promulgated to date. California
monographslvol46/46-01.htm; California Air Resources Board (19gB} will reduce diesel fine particles by 30 percent from year 2000 levels.
Proposed Identification of Diesel Exhaust as a Toxic Air Contaminant; California has announced plans to promulgate additional critical regula-
See also, California Environmental Protection Agency. Air Resources tions in the next few years to address significant sources such as con-
Board. Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. April 22, 1998; struction. agriculture, and inland shipping. California Air Resources Board
CaIEPA (2002}. Health Assessment for Diesel Engine Exhaust; (CARB) 2004a. Air Quality Almanac Emission Prqjections. Online at http:/
6 American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Environmental Health. Iwww.arb.ca.gov/emisinv/emsmamlemsmain.l1tm; california Air Re-
Ambient Air Pollution: Health Hazards to Children, Pediatrics, Vol 114 , sources Board (CARB). 2oo3a. Staff Report: Initial Statement of Rea-
No.6, {December 2004} pp. 1699-1707. Ava~abfe at www,pediat rics,org. sons: Proposed Diesel Particulate Matter Control Measure for On Road
For a complete summary of studies of particulate matter and health see: Heavy..Duty Residential and Commercial Solid Waste COllection Vehicles.
EPA Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter:. October 2004 avaialble at: Sacramento. CA: California Environmental Protection Agency. CaUfor-
http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfmlpartmatt.cfm nia Air Resources Board (CARB) 2003b Staff Report: Initial Statement
7 Modeled health impacts of less severe acute health impacts (e.g. other of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure
than mortality. heart attacks) likely understate the full magnitude of the for Stationary Compression Ignition Engines. Sacramento, CA: Califor-
impacts because many cases go unreported (e.g. asthma. bronchitis nia Environmental Protection Agency, Stationary Source Division Emis-
self -treatment. or treatment in small cHnics or private offices.) Further- sions Assessment Branch;. California Air Resources Board (eARB)
more. the U.5, does not manage a central database of national health 2003c. REVISED - Staff Report: Initial Statement of Reasons for Pr(),.
records. posed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic Control Measure for In-use Diesel
8 U.S. EPA. OAR, ,sFinal Report to Congmss on Benefrts and Costs of the Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU) and TRU Generator Sets.
Clean Air Act, 1-970-1990," EPA410-R-97-002, (1997) page 1-23 at http:f and Facilities Where TRUs Operate, Sacramento, CA: California Envi-
lwww.epa.gov/airlsect8121appenj.pdf. ronmentat Protection Agency. Stationary Source Division Emissions
9 Mothers Against Drunk Driving online at: http://www.madd.orgJstatsl Assessment Branch. The Union of Concerned Scientists recently esti-
mated the costs and benefits of achieving the, CARB Diesel Risk Reduc-
0.1056,1112.00.html tion goal. See Union of Concemed SCientists, Sick of Soot: Reducing
10 Arias. E. et al., "Deaths: Final Data for 2001, " centers for Disease Con- the Health Impacts of Diesel Pollution in California (June 2004) avail--
trol. 52 National Vital Statistics Reports No. 3 (September 18. 2003). able online at: http://www; ucsusa.orgldean_vehides/trucks_ a~busesl
Available online at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr52/ page.cfm?pageID= 1429
nvsr 52_03. pdf 15 This analysis was performed by multiplying modeled ASPEN (Assess-
11 U.S. Department of Transportation. National Highway Traffic Safety Ad- ment System for Population Exposure Nationwide) 1999 county-level
ministration Trafflc Safety Fads 2000: Occupant Protection (Washing- ambient diesel PM2.5 concentration data times: (1) the upper and lower
ton, D.C. 20(1). Available online at: http~lIwww.bts.gov/publications/ bounds of EPA's possible diesel particulate matter cancer risk range;
tra nsport8tion_statistics_an nual_report/20a 1/htmll chapter _ and (2) the California Air Resources Board diesel cancer unit risk factor.
06_figure_01_152_table_.html See: California Diese' Risk Reduction Plan: http://www.am.ca.gov/die-
12 This analysis is based on methodology approved by U.S. EP/(s Science seVdocumentslrrpapp.htm; EPA HeaIthAssessrmtt Oocumert for Diesel
Advisory Board and used by EPA in the Regulatory Impact AnalySis Exhaust. Office of Research and Development, EPAl6OOl~9OI057F (May
(RIA) of the non-road rule. EPA Final Regulatory Impact Analysis. "Con- 2002). The United States Public Interest Research Group previously used
18
,
a similar methodology i.e., multiplying the CARB unit risk factor by 1996 formed from gaseous emissions through post wemissjon atmospheric
National Air Toxies Assessment fine particle concentration data to de- chemical reactions. Typically, these include nitrate from nitrogen oxide
rive national. state, and local additional cancer risk (cancers per million emissions and sulfate from sulfur dioxide emissions. Secondarily-formed
people) from diesel fine particles. U.S. PIRG Education Fund, Dangers fine particles may make up as much as one-third of dieseJwreJated par-
of Diesel: How Diesel Soot and Other Air Taxies Increase Americans' tides. See Uoyd, A. C., and Cackette, T.A. (2001). Diesel engines: Envi-
Risk of Cancer (October 2(02). . ronmentallmpact and Control. Journal of Air and Waste Management
16 'The estimated possible risk ranges (10-5 to 10"3 as well as lower and Association, v. 51 < p. 809-847, June 2001.
zero risk) provide a perspective of the potential significance of the lung 25 Environmental Protection Agency fact sheet: Diesel Exhaust in the United
cancer hazard." EPA, Health Assessment Document for Diesel Exhaust States. EPA 420-Fw02-048, September. 2002. Available at: http://
Office of Research and Development, EPAl600/8~90/057F (May 2002) www.epa.gov/otaqlretrofitldocuments/420f03022.pdf. The unit of mea-
at p. 8-15. For CARB unit risk value, see: Findings of the SCientific Re- sure used by EPA for diesel emissions, g1bhp-hr = grams of pollutant
view Panel on The Report on Diesel Exhaust as adopted at the Panel's released per brake horsepower hour.
April 22, 1998, meeting. http://www.arb.ca.gov/toxicsldieseltac/dew 26 1990 Truck Survival Rate, U,S. DOE, (2003) Available at: http~IIVIfIJ'JW-
fnds.pdf. See also, http://tAPmIl.arb.ca.govlregactldiesltac/diesltac.htm. cta.ornl.gov/dataJtedb23/SpreadsheetslTabIe3_11. xis
The findings in this report based on the CARB unit risk factor are con- 27 EPA Fact Sheet, nproposal for Cleaner Heavy-duty Trucks and Buses
sistent with EPA's possible diesel risk range e.g., 3 X 10-4 is within EPA's
range of 1 (}"3 to 10-5. and Cleaner Diesel Fuel," (May 17, 20(0).
17 The number per million is the chance in a population of' a million people 28 1990 Truck Survival Rate, U,S. OOE, (2003) Available at: http://vvww-
who might be expected to get cancer over a 70-year lifetime. A potential eta .ornJ.govldataltedb23JSpreadsheets/TabIe3_11.xls
cancer risk of 10 in a miffion means if one million people were exposed 29 California Air Resources Board, "Risk Reduction Plan to Reduce Par-
to a certain level of a pollutant or chemical there is a chance that 10 of ticulate Matter Emissions from Diesel-Fueled Engines and Vehicles."
them may develop cancer over their 10-year lifetime. This would be 10 CARB Mobile Source Contro' Division, (October 2000).
new cases of cancer above the expected rate of cancer in the popula- 30 For a more thorough discussion of the full panoply of diesel-related
tion. According to CARB the expected rate of cancer for all causes, in- health effects please see CATF white paper at www.catf.us/goto/
eluding smoking, is about 200.000 to 250.000 chances in a million (one dieselwhitepaper/. For the two most comprehensive U.S. risk asse5S-
in four to five people). ments for diesel exhaust, see the EPA health assessment document at:
18 for 1999 NATA national excess cancer risk from air toxies other than http:/cfpub. epa.gov/ncealcfmlrecor display. cfm?deid= 29 060 and the
diesel see: Inside EPA, Inside Washington Publishers. (December 15, California health assessment at http://www.arb.ca.gov/toxicsldieseltacJ
2004) http://vvww.insideepa.coml staffrpt.pdf.
19 This finding is based on inhalation as the only exposure path and is 31 Pope, C.A.. Thun. M.J., Namboordiri. M.M. and Dockery, D.W., et al.;
limited to the thirty-three air toxies included in EPA's National Air Taxies Particulate AirPDllution as a Predictor of Mortality in a PrDspective Study
Assessment (NATA). The relative cancer risk of diesel particulate matter of U.S. Adults,. 151 American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care
is calculated as a ratio of the cancer risk of all air toxics tracked by EPA Medicine (1995). Available online at http://ajrccm.ats journals.orgl
in the NATA divided by the risk of diesel particulate. We calculated the search.shtml: Krewski. D., Burnett, R.T., Goldberg, M.S.. Hoover, K.,
cancer risk for diesel PM in the U.S. based by applying the CARB cancer Siemiatycki, J., Jerrett, M., Abrahamowicz. A. and White, W.H., Reanalysis
unit risk factor for diesel particulate matter to 1999 ASPEN model aver- of the Harvard Six Cities Study and the American Cancer Society Study
age national ambient concentration results for diesel PM. (SOUrce for of Particulate Matter and Mortality. Special Report to the Health Effects
national toxic risk: Inside EPA, Inside Washington Publishers, Decem~ Institute, Cambridge, MA (July 2000}; samet, J.M.. Dominici, E, Zeger,
ber 15,2004.) S.L, Schwartz, J. and Dockery, D.W. National Morbidity, Mortality and
20 According to the EPA's categorization of counties as urban or rural. the Air Pollution Study, Part II: Morbidity, Mortality and Air Pollution in the
average ASPEN 1999 ambient diesel fine partide concentration is 1.3822 United States; Health Effects Institute Research Report No. 94, Cam-
uglm3 for urban counties and 0.4730 uglm3 for rural counties. Theoveraff bridge MA (June 2000); Dockery, D.W., Pope. C.A.. Xu, S. and Spengler,
national average is 1.2096 uglm3. These averages are population J.D., et al; An Association Between Air Pollution and Mortality in Six
weighted. These averages convert (using the 0.0003 factor) to cancer V.s. Cities, 329 New England J. Medicine 1753..59 (1993). Availabfe
risks of 415 per million urban, 142 per million rural, and 363 per million online at http://nejm~orglcontentl1993J0329JOO24/1753.asp; Woodruff.
T., Grillo, J. and Schoendorf, K. 1997. The relationship between selected
average. causes Df postneonataJ infant mottality and particulate air pollution in
21 U.S. centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "National Hospital Dis- the United States. Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 105.- p. 608w
charge Summary 1998, II Advance Data #316 (June 30. 2000). Available 612.
online at: http://www.cdc.gov.nchs. 32 New York University, Press Release, "Most Definitive Study Yet Shows
22 This analysis was performed using 1 999 county~level ambient diesel T my Particles in Air Are Linked to Lung Cancer, " March 5. 2002; Pope,
PM2.5 concentration data modeled using the Assessment System for C.A., Burnett, R.I., Thun, M.J, Calle, E.E., Krewski. 0.. Ito, Kaz, and
Population Exposure Nationwide (ASPEN) air quality model, and then Thurston. G.D., Lung Cancer, cardiopulmonaryMortalilJ andLong Term
by applying a damage function model using concentration-response re- Exposure to Fine Particulate Air Pollution, Journal of the American Medi-
lationships to estimate adverse health endpoints from modeled changes cat Association, Vat. 2B7, (2002), p. 1132-1141.
in air quality. For a fun discussion of the methodology used. please see: 33 Peters. A., Increased Particulate Air Pollution and the Triggering of MYD~
www.catf.uslgotoJAbtASPENI. For health impacts in your city and state
see: http:Hwww.catf.uslgotoldieselhealth. cardia/Infarction, Circulation, Vol. 109, (June 12,2(01); Donaldson, K.,
23 The new health findings provided in this report by Abt Associates are et al. Ambient Particle Inhalation and the Cardiovascular System: Po-
tentia/Mechanisms, Environmental HealthPerspedives, Vof.109, Supp.
derived from average modeled estimates of ambient concentrations of 4; Ghio. A.J., and Devlin, R.B., (2001). lnfJamatory Lung fryury After
diesel particulate matter for entire counties. Many peopfe experience Bronchial Instillation of Air Pollution ParticJes~ American Journal of Res-
higher diesel exposure situations depending upon where they live and piratory Critical Care Medicine, Vol. 164-. (2001) p. 704-708; Nemmar,
work, for example, such as working near diesel engines. Jiving near A" Hoet, p" Dinsdale, D.,VermyJen, J.~ Hoylaerts,M., and Nemmy, 8..
diesel sources or commuting regularly on roadways with diesel traffic. Diesel Exhaust Particles in Lung Acutely Enhance Experimental Periph-
The quantitative estimates of death and disease we provide in this re- eral Thrombosis, Circulation. Vol. 101. (2003), pp.1202-1208,
port are based on average exposures only and do not represent the 34 National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter, Final Rule.
risks associated with high diesel exposures. Furthermore, these health
findings do not indude the impacts from all toxic constituents in diesel 40 eFR Part 50. EPA Federal Register, vol. 162. .no. 138, Friday Ju1y 17,
exhaust only directly-emitted particulate matter. 1997 at page 38651. see at: http://W\IVW.epa.govlttnloarpgIt1/fr_notices/
24 The state and metropolitan area health effects reported here exclude pmnaaqs.pdf
those associated with secondarily-formed fine particles, i.e., particles 35 Peters, A., and Pope, A.C., Cardiopulmonary Mortality and Air Pollution,
19
"
The Lancet. Vol. 360. (October 19, 2(02), p.1184, http://cfpub.epa.gov/ US EPA s Health Effects Research Laboratories at Cincinnati, Ohio, J.
ncea/cfmlrecordisplay.cfm?deid=29060; Brook, R.D.. Brook, J. R., Urch, Am. COli. Toxieol. 1983:2(4):253M306.
B., Rajagopalan, S.. Silverman, P., Inhalation of Fine Particulate Air Pol- 50 Watanabe (1999); Watanabe (2001).
lulian and Ozone Causes Acute Arterial Vasoconstriction in Healthy 51 Kilburn. K.H.. Effects of Diesel Exhaust on Neurobehavioral and Pulmo-
Adults, Circulation, Vot.105, (2002). pp. 1534-1536, http://dpub.epa.gov/ nary Functions. Archives of Environmental Health. Vol. 55, No.1. (2000),
ncealcfml record is play ,cfm?deid=29060; Peters, A., Dockery, D .W.,
Muller. J.E., Mittleman. M.A.. Increased PatticuJate Air Pollution and the pp,11-11.
Triggering of Myocardial Infarction, Circulation. Vol. 103. (2001), pp. 52 Environmental Protection Agency, "The Projection of Mobile Source Air
2810-2815; Peters, A.. Uu, E.. Verier, Rl. et at, Air Pollution and /nci- Taxies from 1996 to 2007: Emissions and Concentrations," August, 2001.
doom of Cardiac Arrhythmia, Epidemiology. Vol. 11. (2000), pp .11-17. (Totals do not reflect marine. rail, aircraft contributions)
36 Hong. Y.. Loo, 1,. Kim, H., Kwan, H., AirPallution. A New Risk Factor in 53 EPA Health Assessment for Diesel Exhaust (2002) deemed diesel par-
Ischemic Stroke Mortality; Stroke, Vol. 33, (2002), pp.2165-2169; Hong. ticulate matter a "likely" carcinogen, using yetMto-be-approved termi-
Y.. Lee. J.. Kim. H., Ha, E.. SChwartz. J. and Christiani. D.C.. Effects of nology. "Ukely" under [PA's proposed terminology is equivalent to "prob-
Air Pollutants on Acute Stroke Mortality. Environmental Health Perspec- able" under EPA's approved terminology.
tives, Vol. 110, No, 2, (February 2002). 54 EPA Health Assessment for Diesel Exhaust (2002}, EPA declined to as-
37 Churg, A.. Brauer. M., Avila-Casado. M.. Fortoul, T.I., and Wright J,L.. sign a unit risk for diesel particulate matter in the diesel Health Assess-
Chronic Exposure to High Levels of Particulate Air Pollution and Small ment, however EPA has indicated a probable range of 10-3 to 10-5 which
Airway Remodeling. Environmental Hearth Perspectives, Vo1.111. No. translates to 12 to 1210 cancers per million, Source for CARB Unit Risk:
5, (2003), pp. 714-71R California Air Resources Board (1998): Staff Report for Rulemaking.
38 American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on fnvironmental Heatth. Identification of diesel exhaust as a toxic air contaminant http://
Ambient Air Pollution: Health Hazards to Children, Pediatrics. Vol. 114. www.arb.ca.gov/regactldiesltac/diesltac.htm;
No.6, (December 2004). 55 Wiley, l.A., Robinson, J.P., Cheng, Y.T, Piazza, I, Stork, L, and Pladsen,
39 California Air Resources Board (1998) Resolution 98-35. Identification K, Study ofChildren's Activity Patternsj Final Report Contract No. A733-
of diesel exhaust as a toxic air contaminant. 149, Survey Research Center, University of California. Berkeley, (Sep-
40 EPA, Health Assessment Document for Diesel Exhaust Office of Re- tember 1991); Snodgrass. W,R'j Physiological and Biochemical Differ-
ences Between Children and Adults and Determinants of Toxic Response
search and Development, EPAl600/8-90/057F (May 2002) at http:// to Environmental Pollutants, in Guzlean. et al., Similarities and Differ-
cfpub.epa.gov/ncealcfmlrecordisptay.cfm?deid=29060 ences Between Children and Adults: Implications far Risk Assessment,
41 Findings of the California Air Resources- Board's Scientific Review Panel 1151 Press, Washington, OCr (year unknown); Thurston, G. D., '.Par-
on The Report on DieS2/ Exhaust as adopted at the Panel's April 22. ticulate Matter aod Sulfate: Evaluation of Current California Air Quality
1998, meeting, http://VIIWW.arb.C8;gov/toxicsldieseltaclde-fnds.pdf. Standards with Respect to Protection of Children," California Air Re-
42 The national average ambient diesel particulate matter concentration sources Board. Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, {5ep-
from 1999 ASPEN modeling (1.21 ugIm3) was multiplied times the CARB tember 1, 20(0), http://WW\fIJ.arb.ca.gov/ch/cehlairstandards.htm
diesel particulate matter unit risk of 3 in 10,000 per 1.0 ugIm3 and dis-- 56 Pope, C.A., and Dockery. D.W., Acute Health Effects of PM10 Pollution
tributed over the 2005 U.S. population to gel total of 107.000 lifetime Symptomatic and Asymptomatic Children.. American Review of Respi-
cancers assuming a 70-year lifetime of exposure to the national aver- ratory Disease, Vol, 145, (1992), pp. 1123-1128; Tolbert, P., et aJ. Air
age ambient concentration. The annual estimated, impact is calculated Quality and Pediatric Emergency Roam Visits for Asthma in AtJanla~
by dividing the 107,000 lifetime cancers by 70 years. arriving Georgia, American Journal of Epidemiology. Vol. 151, No.8, (2000),
at 1.530 annual cancers attributable to diesels per year. This estimate is pp. 798-810; Norris, G., Young Pong. N., Koenig. J" Larson, I, Sheppard.
likely very conservative (low) because urban areas where larger popula- L and Stout. J't An Association Between Fine Particles and Asthma
tions dvveU, are characterized by concentrations that are much higher Emergency Department Visits for Children in Seattle, Environmental
than the national average. Health Perspectives, Vol. 107. No.6, (1999), pp. 489-493; Gauderman,
43 Pope. CA., BUJ"nett, R~I, Thun, Mol. Calle. E.E., Krewski, D., lto, Kaz. WJ., McConnell. R., Gilliland. F.. london. S.. Thomas, D., Avol, E., Vora,
Thurston, G.D., Lung Cancer; Cardiopulmonary Mortality, and Long Term H.. Berhane. K. Rappaport E., Lurmann, E. Margolis. H,G., and Peters.
Exposure to Fine Particulate Air Pollution Journal of the American Medi- J., Association Between Air Pollution andLung Function Growth in South-
cat Association, Vol. 287, (2002). pp. 1132-1141. ern California Children~ American Journal of Respiratory and Critical
44 Diaz-sanchez. D.. et a1., Diesel Exhaust Particles Induce Local IgE Pro- Care Medicine. Vol. 162. No.4. (2000). pp. 1-8; Brauer. M., Hoek. G.,
duction in Vivo and Alter the Pattern of IgE Messenger RNA /sofonns, J. Van Vliet, P.. et aI.. Air PolJution from Traffic and the Development of
Clio. Invest., 94:1417-1425 (1994); Diaz-Sanchez. D" The Role of Die- Respiratory Infections and Asthmatic and Allergic Symptoms in Chil-
sel Exhaust Particles and Their Associated PoJyaromatic Hydrocarbons dren, American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine.
in the Induction of Allergic Airway Disease. Allergy 52 (Suppf. 38). 52- Vol.166 . (2002). pp. 1092-1098; Un, S.. Muosie. J., Hwang, S..
56.- (1997); Castranova, Vincent. et aI.. Effect of Exposure to Diesel Frtzgerald, E" and Cayo. M., Childhood Asthma Hospitalization and Resi-
Exhaust Particles on the Susceptibility of the Lung to infection, EH~ dential Exposure to State Route Traffic, Environmental Research See-
Vol. 109, Suppl. 4. {August 2001),609-612. tion A 88, (2002). pp. 13-81; Kim, J., Smorodinsky, S..Lipsett, M., Singer.
45 Watanabe and Oonuki, Inhalation of Diesel Engine ExhaustAffects Sper- B.. Hodgson, A" and Ostro. B.. TraffJC-relatedAir PolJution near Busy
Roads The East Bay ChiJdrens Respiratory Health Study. At'llIDcan Jour-
matogenesis in Growing Male Rats, Environmental Health Perspectives, oal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. Vol. 170. (2004), pp, 520-
Vol,. 107, No.7. (July 1999).539-544. 526; Woodruff.- I, Grillo. J. and SChoendorf. K" The- Relationship Be-
46 Watanabe, N.. and Kurita, M., The Masculinization of the Fetus During tween Selected Causes of Postneonatallnfant Mortality and Particulate
Pregnancy Due to Inhalation of Diesel Exhaust., Environmental Health Air Pollution in' the United States. Environmental Health Perspectives.
Perspectives. Vot. 109. No.2, (Feb. 2001). Vol. 105, (1997). pp. 608-612.
47 Id. 57 Latest statistics from the U.S. Department of Transportation tell the story:
48 Callahan, J.E. et aL The Subchronic Inhalation Toxicity of DF2 (diesel school buses have the best safety record of any form of transportation.
fuel) used in Vehicle Engine Exhaust Smoke Systems, Maryland: Chemi- Last year, just six youngsters were killed as school bus occupants. Yet,
cal Research and Development center. (1986) pp. 1-152. 800 youngsters are killed every year getting to and from school by some
49 Laurie, R.D,. and Boyes, W.K., Neurophysiological Alterations Due to other means than a school bus. Source: School Bus Information Coun-
Diesel Exhaust During the Neonatal Ufe of the Rat, Environ Int.. (1981) cil ~ http://www.schoolbusinfo.orgJreport.htm
b:5:363-8; Laurie. R.D.. Boyes. W,K., and Wessendarp. I, Behavioral 58 See: http://W'Nw.epa,gov/cleanschoolbus/
Alterations Due to Diesel Exhaust Exposure. Environ Int., (1981)-. a:5:357- 59 Gold, D., Litonjua, A., Schwartz, J., Lovett E., Larson, A., Nearing, B.,
61; Pepelkor WE and PeiranoF W.B., Health Effects of Exposure to Die- Allen, G., Verrierj M., Cherry. R., and Verrier. R. Ambient PaJlution and
sel Engine Emissions: a Summary of Animal Studies Conducted by the Heart Rate Variability, Vol. 101. No. 11. (21 March 2000), pp. 1267-
20
. )
I 9
1273; Liao.D.. Creason, J" Shy.C.. Williams. R.. Watts, R., and in the Aisles. Diesel Exhaust Inside School Buses (2001). Available at:
Zweidinger. R.. Daily Variation of Particulate Air Pollution and Poor Car- http://WNW.nrdc.orglair/transpormtion/schoolbuslsbusinx.asp; Cali for.
diac Autonomic Control in the Elderly. Environroontal Health Perspec- nia Air Resources Board. "Characterizing the Range of Children's Pol-
tives, Vof.107. NO.7. (July 1999): Mar,T., Norris,G.. Koenig, J. and larson, lutant Exposure During SChool Bus Commutes," (2003). Available at:
T., Associations Between Air Pollution and Mortality in Phoenix. 1995- http://www.arb.ca.gov/researcfv'schoofbus/schoolbu5.htm
1997, Environroontal Health Perspectives. VoJ.108. No.4, (April 2000). 71 Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management: Unpublished
60 For engine population data: EPA Diesel Engine Census, EPA Office of datat 2004.
Transportation and Air Quaiity, 2004. For most recent highway diesel 72 Fruin. et al., Fine Particle and Black Carbon Concentrations Inside Ve-
emissions see EPA Emissions Trends Report for 2002 at: http://www. hie/eSt 10th Annual Conference of the International Societ') of Exposure
epa.gov/tto/chief/trendsltrendS02ftrendsreportaUpoUut ants111504 .xrs Anarysis, Oct. 2000.
61 For descriptions of non-road engines see: EPA non-road rule: http:// 73 Riediker, M.. Cascio, W. Griggs, T., Herbst. M., Bromberg, P., Neas, L.,
wV\lw.epa.gov/air/off-roadl. For most recent non-road diesel emissions Williams, R., and Devlin, R" Particulate Matter Exposure in Gars Is As-
see; EPA Air Quality Trends for 2002 at; http://www.epa.govlttnlchief/ sociated with Cardiovascular Effects in Healthy Young Men American
trendsltrends02/trends reportallpollutants 111504 .xls Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Vol. 169. (2004). pp.
62 For most recent marine diesel emissions see: EPA 2002 Emissions Trends 934-94-0; See also, Weinhold. B.. Pollutants Lurk Inside Vehicles: Don't
Report at: http://www.epa.govlttnlchieUtrendsltrends02/trendsreport Breathe andDrive?Envirornnental Health Perspectives, Vol. 109. No.9,
aHpoUutants111504.xls (September 2001); Marr. L.C.. Grogan. L.A., Wohrnschimmel, H" Molina.
63 For most recent locomotive diesel emissions, see: EPA 2002 EmiSSions L.t Molina. M.. Smith. I. Garshick. E., Vehicle Traffic as a Source of
Trends Report at: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chiefftrends/trends02/ Particulate polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Exposure in the Mexico
trendsrepo-rtaHpolfutants111504.xlS City Metropolitan Area. Environmental Science and Technology. Vol. 38t
64 For summary of occupational studies: Cohent A.J., and Higgins, M.W.P., NO.9. (2004}, pp. 2584~2592; Fruin et al.. "Fine particle and black car-
bon concentrations inside vehicles:' 10th Annual Conference of the In-
Health Effects of Diesel Exhaust: Epidemiologj'r Diesel Exhaust; A Criti~ ternational Society of Exposure Analysis. Oct'r 2000.
cal Analysis Of emissions, Exposure and Health Effectsr pp. 251-292,
Health Effects Institute, Cambridge' MA~r (April 1995). For most com- 74 Estimate is based on EPA methodology described in EPA Memoran-
prehensiveandrecent U.S. study: Garshickr E., Laden, F., Hart. J., ROSnefr dum, Bryan Hubbell to sam Napolitano. July 2. 2001. Estimated NOXr
B.. Smith,- T.. Dockery, D. and Speizer. F., Lung Cancer in Railroad Work- 502 and PM emissions health damages for heavy duty vehicle emis-
ers Expnsed to Diesel Exhaustr Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. sions.
122, No. 1St (November 2004). pp. 1539-1543. For nervous system 75 Motor Age, "EPA to Retrofit 11 Million Diesels, ,r Advanstar Communica-
effects: Kilburn. K. H., Effects of Diesel Exhaust on Neurobehavioral and lions (August 2004). Available online at: httpllwww.motorage.coml
PulmonaryFunctions, Archives or Environmental Health. Vol. 55, No.1, mmoragelarticte/articleOetailjsp?id== 141102
(2000), pp. 11-17. 76 California Air Resources Board (CARB) 2004a. Air Quality Almanac Emis-
65 Finkelstein, M., Jerrell. M., and Sears. M.t Traffic.. Air Pollution and Mor- sion Projections. Onrine at http://www.arb.ca.gov/emisinv/emsmain/
tality Rate Advancement Periods, American Journal of Epidemiotogyt emsmain.htrn' California Air Resources Board (CARS). 20038. Staff Re-
Vol. 160, (2004). pp. 173~177; Peters, A., Von Klot. S., Heier. A.t port: "Initial Statement of Reasons: Proposed Diesef Particulate Matter
Trentinaglia, I.. Hormannt A.t WIChmann, E., Lowel. H., Exposure to Traffic Control Measure for On-Road Heavy-Duty Residential and Commercial
and the' onset of Myocardial Infarction, NEJM. Vol. 351. No 17. (Octo- Solid Waste COllection Vehides, " California Environmental Protection
ber 15, 2004); Hoek. G., Brunekreef. B.. Goldbohm, 5., fischer, p, and Agency, Sacramento. CA; California Air Resources Board (CARB) 2003b
van den Brandt, P.. Association Between Mortality and Indicators of 1faf- Staff Report: "Initial Statement of Reasons for Proposed- Rulemaking:
fic-Related Air Pollution in the Netherlands: a Cohort Studj'r The Lancet. Airborne Toxic Control Measure for Stationary Compression Ignition
Vol. 360. December 19, 2002, pp.1203-1209; Brauer, M., Hoek, G., Van Engines." Sacramento, CA: California Environmental Protection Agency,
Vliet, ~, et al.. Air Pollution from Traffic and the Development of Respi- Stationary Source Division Emissions Assessment Branch; California
ratory Infections- and Asthmatic and Allergic Symptoms in Children, Air Resources Board (CARB) 2003c. REVISED- - Staff Report: Initial
American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Vol. 166, Statement of Reasons for Proposed Rulemaking: Airborne Toxic. Con-
(2002). pp. 1092-1098; Un. S., Munsie. J., Hwang, S.. Fitzgerald. E., trot Measure for In-use Diesel Fueled Transport Refrigeration Units (TRU)
and Cayo. M., Childhood Asthma Hospitalization and Residential Expo- and TRU Generator Sets. and Facilities Where TRUs Operatet Sacra~
sum to State Route Traffic. Environmental Research Section A 88. (2002). mento, CA: California Environmental Protection Agency. Stationary
pp. 73-81. Source Division Emissions Assessment Branch.
66 Finkelsteirlr M.. et al. (2004). 77 MECA: http://wvvw.epa.gov/otaqlretrofitldocuments/meca1.pdf; CARS
67 Kinney, 1';, Aggarwal, M., Northridge. M.. Janssen. N.. and Shepard. P.. cost-effectiveness analysis: http://vvww.arb.ca.gov/regactlbusOl1appf.pdf
Airborne Concentrations of PM2. 5 and Diesel Exhaust Particles on Harlem 78 MECA: http://www.meca.orgljahialJahia/engineNameJfilemanager/pidJ
Sidewalks: A Community-Based Pilot Study, Environmental Heatth Per- 229/dieseffact. PDF?actionreq=actionFileDownload&fileltem~213. A
spectives, Vol. 108, No.3, (2000); Lena, S., Ochieng. V., Carter, M., newly verified Diesel Oxidation Catalyst technology. cafred "a torturous
HolgUin-Veras, J.. and Kinney. P., Bemental Carbon and PM2.5 Levels path filter" achieves a 50 percent reduction in diesel particulate at about
inan Urban-CommunityHeavi/y lmpactedby Trock Traffic, Environmefl~ half the cost of a diesel particulate filter.
tal Health Perspectivesr Vol. 110, No~10 (2002). 79 Motor Aget ~EPA to Retrofit 11 Million Diesels. " Advanstar COmmunica-
68 California EPA (2004). Roseville Rail Yard Study. Available at: http:// tions (August 2004). Available online at: http://VItWW.motorage.coml
WWN.arb.ca.gov/dieselJdocumentslrrstudy/rrstudy1 01404. pdf motoragelartide/articleDetailjsp?id= 141102. See also. http://VV\NW.epa.
69 California Air Resources Board, staff report: initial statement of reasons gov/cleanschoolbusl
for proposed rufemaking. "Proposed Regulatory Amendments Extend- 80 See: http://WW'N.epa.gov/air/oaqpsJparticfes/designationslindex.htm
ing the California Standards for Motor Vehicle Diesel Fuel to Diesel Fuel 81 Vedal. S.. Brauer, M., White, R.. and Petkau, R, (2003). Air Pollution
Used in Harborcraft and Intrastate Locomotives." October 2004. Avail- and Daily Mortality in a City With Low Levels of Air Pollution, Environ-
able at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/regactlcarblohc/isor.pdf mental Health Perspectives VoI.111. No.1. (2003). pp, 45-51.
70 Hill, LB., Zimmerman, NJ., and Goochr J.. A Multi-City Investigation of 82 See: California Risk Reduction Plan at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/diesel/
the Effectiveness of Retrofit Emissions Controls in Reducing Exposures documentslrrpfinal.pdf
to Particulate Matter in School Buses. Clean Air Task Force Report 83 For more information about retrofit programs in your area see: http://
(2005). Available at: http://www.catf.us/publications/reports/CATF- www.epa.gov/otaqlretrofitJprojectmap.htm
Purdoo_MuttLCity_Bu5_Study.php; Wargo, J.. and Brown, D., Children's
Exposure to Diesel Exhaust on School Buses. Environment and Human 84 For more information on EPA's Voluntary Retrofit Program see: http://
Health Inc., (February 2002), p. 76. http://www.ehhi~org/pubs/ www.epa.gov/otaq/retrofit
children_diesel.htmf; Natural Resources Defense Councit No Breathing
21
.., << I
,,- , 'Y"I :"
i4"!
'~~
~'-"';' -
CLEAN AIR TASK FORCE
.~~~R!.
-- ._,
! 8 T r e f1: 0 :'1 r S t r 8 e t. S L ; t F; 53 c;
3os:o-:. ~'-;tL\ 02 -: Cij
:- 8L 6 ~ -; -624-(: 2 34 ..- F a;-.-;: G -: 7 -f~L4-02~j C
vVVJw.catf.us
Page 1 of2
Diesel &. Health in America: ~:-.~
ClEAN AIR TASK FORCE:
Diesel Soot Health Impacts
Where Yau Live
Scott County
Minnesota
The lifetime cancer risk from diesel soot in your
community exceeds the risk of all other air toxics tracked
by EPA combined.
. The average lifetime diesel soot cancer risk for a
resident of Scott County is 1 in 4,371.
. This risk is 229 times greater than EPA's acceptable
cancer level of 1 in a million.
Find out how this risk was calculated; understand how your risk
might be higher, an explanation of 1-in-a-million acceptable risk
How the Risk from Diesel Soot in Scott County Compares- to
Other Counties Nationally:
National Rank: 579 of 3, 109 counties
810/0
v
I -::u~1;f~;~~~i!;-~1 ;~~;~ H:,~:-. i~.T I
0% 100/0 '200/0 30% 400/0 500/0 600/0 70% 800k 90010 1000/0
healthiest Counties [PERCENTILE] unhealthiest Counties
What are percentiles?
How the Risk from Diesel Soot in Scott County Compares to
Other Minnesota Counties:
Rank Within State: 7 of 87 counties
http://www.catf.us/projects/dieselldieselhealthlcounty . php?site=O&c=2 713 9&aetion=print 6/19/2006
Page 2 of2
Lifetime Cancers per Million People in Scott County:
229
- 25
Inhaled Other
Diesel Inhaled
Soot Toxics
How did CA TF compare the risk of diesel
particulate to other air taxies?
Diesel Emissions (1999):
Pollutant Annual Tons Highway Heavy Equipment
per Year (on road) (non road)
NOx 1,810 1, 131 679
PM2.5 100 38 62
PM10 111 43 68
CO 687 337 350
vac 147 69 78
502 114 31 83
Copyright @2005 Clean Air Task Force
www.catf.us
http://www.catf.us/projects/dieselldieselhealthlcounty . php?site=O&c=2 713 9&action=print 6/19/2006
TABLE 2
Toxic Air Contaminants and Hazardous Air Pollutants
in Diesel Exhaust
Acetaldehyde* Chlorine Methyl ethyl ketone
Acrolein Chlorobenzene Naphthalene*
ALuminum Chromium compounds* Nickel*
Ammonia Cobalt compounds* 4 - nit fO b i P he nyl *
Aniline* Copper Phenol
Antimony compounds* Cresol Phosphorus
Arsenic* Cyanide compounds POM (including PAHs)
Barium Dibenzofuran Propionaldehyde
Benzene* Dibutylphthalate Selenium compounds*
Beryllium compounds* Ethyl benzene Silver
Biphenyl Formaldehyde* Styrene*
Bis [2-ethylhexyl]phthalate* Hexane Sulfuric acid
(
Bromine Lead compounds* Toluene*
1,3-butadiene* Manganese compounds Xylene isomers and mixtures
,
Cadmium* Mercury compounds* Zinc
Chlorinated dioxins* Methanol
*This compound or class of compounds is known by the State of California to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity.
See California EPA, Office of Environmental Health Hazard Asse$sment. "Chemicals Known to the State to Cause
Cancer Of Reproductive Toxicity," May 31, 2002.
Note: Toxic air contaminants on this list either have been identified in diesel exhaust or are presumed to be in the
exhaust, based on observed chemical reactions or presence in the fuel or oil. See California Air Resources Board,
"Toxic Air Contaminant Identification List Summaries, Diesel Exhaust," September 1997, available online at
http://www.arb.ca.gov/toxics/tac/factshts/diesex,pdf.
Health Effects Specific to Diesel Exhaust
The major pollutants that make up diesel exhaust each pose threats to public
health and the environment. In addition, a growing body of research on the
hazards of diesel exhaust shows that this particular combination of pollutants
causes significant cancer risk and both acute and chronic health problems.
Cancer risk
Numerous governmental agencies and scientific bodies have concluded that diesel
exhaust is a probable human 'carcinogen (Table 3). The first major study to
investigate the contribution of diesel exhaust to people's exposures to toxic air
pollutants was the Multiple Air Toxics Exposure Study (MATES-II), conducted
by California's South Coast Air Quality Management District in 1998 and 1999
and one of the most comprehensive urban air toxics studies ever undertaken. The
results were alarming: 70 percent of the cancer risk from air pollution for those
living in the Los Angeles air basin (one of the most polluted in the country) was
due to diesel particulate emissions.5
19